agriculture

Small-scale agriculture, also known as small-scale farming, is the production of crops and livestock on a relatively small piece of land without using advanced and expensive technologies. Small-scale farming doesn't require large acreage, allows for the cultivation of multiple crops and keeping of livestock, and can take place right in your community.

In small scale agriculture, the land does not exceed four hectares. It is practiced for both subsistence and commercial purposes. Where the farming is practised for subsistence purpose, most of the produce is reserved for consumption. Where, it is practised for subsistence purpose, most of the produce is sold for cash to earn income.

Characteristics of Small Scale Agriculture at Subsistence Level

Explain the characteristics of small-scale agriculture at subsistence level

There are two levels at which small-scale farmers can operate: commercial and subsistence level. When farmers produce with a basic focus on selling, this is typical commercial level; but when they operate farms to feed their families and provide their needs, it is termed as subsistence farming. The following are specific features of small-scale agriculture at subsistence level:

1. Most of the labour is provided by family members and it is manual in nature.
2. Farmers use very simple tools such as hoes, mattocks, rakes and pangas to cultivate. In some cases ox- ploughs are used.
3. A number of ways are used to improve soil fertility which include the use of organic manure, mulching (covering the top soil with crop residues and animal remains to retain moisture), and crop rotation.
4. Farmers often plant different types of food crops on the farm. Crops grown include beans, maize, sunflower, maize, vegetables and other crops grown mainly for domestic consumption.
5. There is very little or no surplus. A large fraction of the produce is used to feed the family and the little surplus is sold.
6. The land cultivated for subsistence farming is always small and total yield and yield per area of land is also small. This is because of fragmentation of arable land into small plots owned by individual farmers.
7. Agriculture mainly involves the use of simple methods of cultivation such as shifting cultivation. However, due to gradual dwindling of arable land, farmers are slowly switching to crop rotation as the most common method of cultivation.
8. There is little or no use of technology in forms of seeds, fertilizer or advanced machinery.
9. Most farmers practise mixed farming – the growing of crops and keeping of animals such as goats, cows, and poultry. These animals provide the manure used to fertilize the farm.
10. There are poor storage facilities in which case most of the yields may be damaged by pests, insects or unfavourable storage conditions.

The Effects of Rapid Population Growth on Small Scale Agriculture

Explain the effects of rapid population growth on small scale agriculture

Rapid population growth refers to a fast increase in population size which does not match with the resources available to support that population. The available resources may include land, water, minerals, etc. Continuous increase in the number of people is one of the problem facing small scale agriculture because. The following are some effects of rapid population growth on small-scale agriculture:

1. Reduction in average size of farms per adult farmer: Because the land is continuously being divided among farmers, plot sizes continue decreasing generation after generation.
2. Exhaustion of soil: Due to the fact that soil nutrients taken up by crops are not sufficiently replenished, the soil has been exhausted, thus leading to reduced soil fertility.
3. Abundant and cheap labour: Due to rapid population growth, labour is cheaply and easily available.
4. Change from subsistence farming to intensive small-holder farming: As population grows, so is the demand for food to meet the ever increasing population. That being the case, farmers are forced to fully utilize the available small portion of arable land through use of fertilizers and agrochemicals aiming at producing more food to feed the entire population.
5. Land conflict: There is the possibility of occurring land conflict because of overpopulation.
6. Landlessness: Some people go without land as few rich people may have taken most of it.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Small Scale Agriculture

Describe advantages and disadvantages of small-scale agriculture

In spite of low yields and other demerits of small scale agriculture, it has many advantages. The following are some advantages of small scale agriculture:

1. It is not expensive in terms of production costs because it uses family labour, simple tools, locally-produced manure and unimproved seeds. And because most farmers inherit the land from their parents, they acquire it free of charge.
2. Because of its smallness, the management of small-scale agriculture is easy and economical. A few persons can manage the operation well.
3. The operation is easy to control since the small producer can himself supervise the enterprise. Nobody is allowed to spoil machinery or waste materials. The master’s eye is everywhere. There can be no fraud or idleness. He will exercise utmost economy to achieve the aim of maximum profits.
4. It provides employment: In the face of high unemployment existing in the country, small scale agriculture is of great help to create more employment opportunities. Small scale production is more labour-intensive i.e., there is more use of labour than machinery. Thus, many unemployed persons are employed in small-scale agriculture. In Tanzania, it is estimated that over 75% of the population are employed in agriculture.
5. Source of revenue: Besides producing for subsistence, farmers sell the surplus and earn money.
6. It provides food required to feed the ever-increasing population.
7. It encourages the development of settlement among farmers.
8. Freedom of work: There is complete freedom of work in a small business organisation. Workers are more or less self-sufficient. They are not dependent on their employer and carry on their jobs freely.
9. Because very little or no agrochemicals are used in production, the yields are safe to consume, a fact that safeguards the health of consumers.
10. Farmers can grow and rear the animals on a single plot and hence maximize land use.

In spite of the numerous advantages of small-scale agriculture, this type of farming has also got a great deal of disadvantages, which include the following:

1. Less use of machines: In the small scale production, there is less scope for the use of machines. As a result, these firms cannot take advantages of the use of the machinery.
2. Low productivity and poor standard of living due to use of simple tools, less use of fertilizer and poor control of pests.
3. Difficulty in getting loans: It is difficult for farmers to get loans because most of them do not own collaterals that are needed by banks.
4. Because small-scale farming is rain-fed agriculture, drought can lead to production losses and famine.
5. Overcultivation of land, a case in most small-scale agriculture enterprises, can lead to loss of soil fertility hence making the land unproductive.

Large Scale Agriculture

Large-scale agriculture is the farming system which takes place on a large area for commercial purposes. Large-scale farming also goes by another name: industrial farming. It is also known as commercial agriculture or state agriculture. Unlike small-scale farms, large-scale farms utilize various industrial methods to maximize production and profit. Thus, sometimes it's not so much about the acres a farm covers, but the methods of production.

Types of large-scale agriculture

Name types of large-scale agriculture in the world

The classification of large-scale agriculture depends on the modes of production involved. There are two broad types of large-scale agriculture in the world. These are:

1. intensive agriculture; and
2. extensive agriculture.

(a) Intensive agriculture

Intensive agriculture is the system of cultivation using large amounts of labour and capital relative to land area. A big labour force is necessary to the application of fertilizer, insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides to growing crops. Capital is particularly important to the acquisition and maintenance of high-efficiency machinery for planting, cultivating, and harvesting, as well as irrigation equipment where that is required.

The use of these materials and machines produces significantly greater crop yields per unit of land than extensive agriculture (discussed below), which uses little capital or labour. As a result, a farm using intensive agriculture will require less land than an extensive agriculture farm to produce a similar profit. Intensive agriculture often encourages farm operators to work very large tracts in order to keep their capital investments in machinery productively engaged, i.e., busy.

The increased productivity of intensive agriculture enables the farmer to use a relatively smaller land area that is located close to market, where land values are high relative to labour and capital, and this is true in many parts of the world. If costs of labour and capital spend for machinery and chemicals, and costs of storage (where desired or needed), and transportation to market are too high, then farmers may find it more profitable to turn to extensive agriculture.

However, in practice many relatively small-scale farmers employ some combination of intensive and extensive agriculture, and many of these operate relatively close to markets. Many large-scale farm operators, especially in such relatively vast and agriculturally advanced nations as Canada and the United States, practice intensive agriculture in areas where land values are relatively low, and at great distances from markets, and farm enormous tracts of land with high yields. However, in such cases overproduction (beyond market demands) often results in diminished profit as a result of depressed prices.

(b) Extensive agriculture

Extensive agriculture is distinguished from intensive agriculture in that the latter, employing large amounts of labour and capital, enables one to apply fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides and to plant, cultivate, and often harvest mechanically. Because extensive agriculture produces a lower yield per unit of land, its use commercially requires large tracts of land in order to be profitable. This demand for land means that extensive agriculture must be carried on where land values are low in relation to labour and capital, which in turn means that extensive agriculture is practiced where population densities are low and thus usually at some distance from primary markets.

Extensive agriculture is the system of crop cultivation using small amounts of labour and capital in relation to area of land being farmed. The crop yield in extensive agriculture depends primarily on the natural fertility of the soil, topography, climate, and availability of water.

In large-scale agriculture, various types of crops are grown. These include sisal, tea, rubber, coffee, sugarcane, wattles, bananas, pineapples, cocoa, oil palm, coconuts, mangoes, tobacco, cotton, jute, hemp, wheat, rice, maize, etc. These crops are mostly grown in plantations (also called estates). Plantation agriculture involves the cultivation of cash crops on a large area of land, approximately 100 hectares. The type of farming practiced is normally monoculture.

Major Crops Grown in Each Type of Large Scale Agriculture

List the major crops grown in each type of large-scale agriculture

Large scale agricultural production is done mainly for commercial purposes. However, in intensive farming where the population is high, food crops are grown together with cash crops. Crops which are grown in large scale include tea, coffee, cocoa, bananas, sisal, sugarcane, grain and rubber. Large scale cultivation is very common in Asia, Africa and America.

Characteristics of Large Scale Agriculture

Describe characteristics of large-scale agriculture

The characteristics of large-scale agriculture include the following:

1. It involves the production of cash crops, and only one crop is grown (monoculture).
2. Farms are very large and are mostly found in sparsely-populated areas. Farms are owned by the government, cooperatives, companies or wealthy individuals.
3. It involves the use of skilled and unskilled labourers. Skilled labourers are used to manage crops while unskilled labourers are used during planting, weeding, harvesting and storing the crops.
4. Mechanization and high levels of technology are employed in most farm operations such as land preparation, planting, crop breeding, research, harvesting, and storage.
5. Great use of agrochemicals such as herbicides, insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers.
6. Investment in large-scale farming requires a lot of capital, which is obtained from loaners such banks and cooperatives, or from personal savings.
7. Irrigation system may be applied in case the rainfall is not sufficient to water the crops; hence, production per unit land is high.

Requirements for Growth, Farm Preparation, Planning, Care, Harvesting, Processing, Storage and Transport

Describe the requirements for growth, farm, preparation, planning, care, harvesting, processing, storage and transport.

In most cases, crops grown in large-scale agriculture include the ones whose cultivation procedures are detailed below.

COTTON

Cotton is a commercial crop, grown for its fibre (lint) that is used for making fabrics. Besides being the source of fibre, cotton plant is also the basic raw material for the production of edible oil and cotton seed meal/cake that is used as livestock feed. The requirements for cotton growing are as explained below.

Cotton grows in tropical and sub-tropical warm, humid climate. It requires equitable temperature distribution and bright sunshine. The annual temperature requirement for cotton is 20°-28°C. An annual rainfall of 500-1000 mm is required for cotton cultivation unless it is grown under irrigation. The crop requires least 200 frost-free days. Heavy rains and a humid weather during later stages of cotton cultivation may spoil the fibre, lower its ginning properties or promote attack of insects, pests, and diseases. A dry weather is required at harvesting because rain will discolour the fibre and reduce its quality.

Cotton needs a soil with excellent water-holding capacity and aeration and good drainage as it cannot withstand excessive moisture and water logging. The major groups of soils for cotton cultivation are the alluvial soils, black soils, and red sandy loam soils.

Cotton cultivation is very labour-intensive, therefore, a large number of cheap labour is required. Labour is required for land cultivation, planting, care for the crop, harvesting, sorting and processing. On the other hand, mechanised cotton cultivation requires huge capital for machinery, pesticides and fertilisers.

Before planting, the soil is ploughed and harrowed to make the soil suitable for sowing the seeds. The land is ploughed using a tractor, harrows, ox plough, or manually by using hoes. Ploughing is preferably done during the dry season to ensure as many weeds as possible are killed. After the land has been ploughed in the dry season, it awaits planting of the seeds during the rainy season.

Cotton is generally propagated by seeds; but vegetatively propagated plants give high yield and quality. Budding, grafting and layering have also been found successful. Unless the crop is grown under irrigation, planting is done during the rainy season. This ensures maximum germination of seeds. A spacing of 75-90 cm between the rows is generally recommended for irrigated crop. For dry-land cotton, a spacing of 45-60 cm between rows is adopted. Cotton should be planted no deeper than 2 cm deep.

Fertilizer application differs from soil to soil depending upon available nutrients in the soil. The key fertilizers used in cotton production are nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K). Correct and timely application of these fertilizers will improve crop quality and harvest. Deficiencies are rare in other essential nutrients such as copper, boron, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, manganese, iron, zinc, cobalt and molybdenum.

Weed control begins 30-40 days after sowing. Thinning of cotton is a special feature of the irrigated crop. Weeds can be controlled manually through weeding using hoes. It can equally be controlled by use of herbicides.

In Tanzania, cotton aphids and cotton jassids are controlled by spraying malathion 0.08%. Cotton leaf roller, spotted bollworm, pink bollworm are controlled by dusting the crop with 10% carbonyl whereas red cotton bug and dusky cotton bug are controlled by dusting 5% BHC

Cotton is harvested in three or more pickings at suitable intervals. The season of harvesting varies with date of sowing and the cotton variety. Well dried bolls are picked either manually or by using harvesters.

In Tanzania, after picking, the cotton is sorted by hand and then graded into AR (the best grade, uncontaminated) and BR (cotton leftovers). The sorted cotton is sold to ginneries for ginning (separation of lint from the seed). The first step in the ginning process is when the cotton is vacuumed into tubes that carry it to a dryer to reduce moisture and improve the fibre quality. Then it runs through cleaning equipment to remove leafy trash, sticks and other foreign matter.

Ultimately, the lint is compressed into bales and transported by trucks, lorries, or any available means of transport, to textile industries, ready for making clothes and other items.

TEA

Tea, whose botanical name is Camellia sinensis, is an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world. Tea is believed to have originated in China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was then popularized as a recreational drink, and tea drinking spread to other East Asian countries. From there, it spread to other parts of the world, including East Africa.

Tea was introduced in East Africa in 1900 at Entebbe in Uganda. It was introduced in Tanzania and in Kenya at Limuru in 1903.

The tea plant is an evergreen tree which grows in tropical or sub-tropical regions. Tea requires a moderately hot and humid climate. Climate influences yield, crop distribution and quality. Temperature affects tea yield by influencing rate of photosynthesis and controlling growth and dormancy. Tea needs mean annual rainfall ranging between 1200 mm and 3000 mm, and a temperature of between 10°C and 30°C. A temperature of 21°C during the growing season of not less than eight months is ideal.

Tea is grown in a variety of soils. It grows well on highlands, and well drained soils having a good depth and more than 2% organic matter. The best, however, is light, friable loam soil which permits a free percolation of water, for tea is highly intolerant to stagnant water. In general the most suitable soils are slightly acidic (pH= 4.5-5.5) soils without calcium.

Tea grows well at an altitude ranging between 1500 and 2200 m above sea level. Almost all the commercially-managed tea plantations are located in the highlands and on hilly slopes where the natural drainage is good. However, higher altitudes are not suitable because of frequent frost. Tea cannot tolerate stagnant water and waterlogged lowlands are thus least suited to tea cultivation. Shallow and compacted sub-soils limit root growth. Tea plants grown on such soils are liable to suffer from drought during dry period and water logging during the rainy months.

The field for planting tea is prepared just like it is done for other crops. It is prepared when the cuttings are almost ready for transplanting. If the field is a new, the land is cleared of bush and then ploughed. Deep digging is important to turn the soil over. This helps to kill the weeds. Generally, all the bad weeds such as striga and couch grass must be removed from the field; otherwise they will compete with crop plants for nutrients and hence lower the yields. The holes for planting cuttings should have a circumference of 25 cm and 40 cm deep. Holes should be 70 cm or 90 cm apart. The space between rows should be about 1.5 m.

Because seedlings take long in the nursery before they can be planted, tea is usually propagated from cuttings. Cuttings are obtained from mature trees or clones (cloning is one of the various technologies employed in plant breeding). To control the weeds, early and occasional weeding is of utmost importance.

A high level of humidity, lots of sunshine and plenty of rain make the ideal planting conditions. The presence of iron in sub-soil is desirable. On the sloping land which is most suitable for tea, soil erosion is often a problem. This is combated by planting tea bushes in lines along the contours.

Tea shrubs grow better when shielded from strong sunlight or violent winds. It is therefore usual in plantations to plant some large trees in between the shrubs to give shade not only to tea plants but also to workers.

Tea should be fertilized with fertilizer mixtures supplying 60 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 30kg K20 per hectare in one or two doses after pruning. A nitrogenous fertilizer is very essential for promotion of leaf growth. Besides this application, plants benefit from compost derived from leaf fall of leguminous shade trees as green manures.

Tea bush is pruned regularly to encourage lateral growth. The main stem is cut at a height of 15 to 40 cm above the ground. Pruning is normally done 4 to 6 years interval depending upon altitude, condition of the tea, etc. The bushes marked for pruning should have adequate starch reserves in roots otherwise the sprouting following pruning will be less.

Tea plantations should be well supplied with roads passable all year round so as to facilitate the transport of inputs to the plantation, tea leaves to factories and workers to and from plantations.

In the wild, the tea plant can reach 10 - 15 metres tall, but to make it easier to harvest its leaves, it is pruned to a height of about 1.10 metres from the ground. It has a lifespan of around 40 years. The tea leaves are plucked at an interval of 5 to 7 days during the rainy season and 10 days during the dry season.

Tea cultivation and processing are labour-intensive tasks. The work of field preparation, weeding, manuring, pruning and picking goes on all the year round on tea estates. And because tea picking is a tedious job, it requires both skill and patience. Tea takes around 3 years before it is read for the first harvest.

Tea bush is ready for harvesting after 4 to 5 years of planting and having a height of 45-60 cm. Plucking is usually restricted to 2 leaves and a bud. This is called fine and light plucking. Coarse or hard plucking includes extra one or two leaves.

Picking is done entirely by hand, and pickers are paid by piece rate, i.e., by the amount of tea picked during the day. Workers are also required in the weigh stations where leaves are sorted and in tea processing plants where the leaves are dried, rolled, fermented, sifted, graded and packed.

Tea processing is the method in which the leaves from the tea plant Camellia sinensis are transformed into the dried leaves for brewing tea. For manufacturing of black tea, the plucked leaves are dried for 18 - 24 hours in ventilated indoor racks, rolled for half an hour mechanically to break up cells, and then fermented or oxidized again for 8 hours at 27°C to 105°C. They are then passed through sieves of different meshes, thus sorting out grades.

After processing, tea is stored in warehouses and large stores, awaiting sale to final consumers. Raw tea is transported to factories via roads and railways. The finished products are transported to consumers via roads, railways or airways.

COFFEE

Coffee has a long and varied history and historians are not exactly sure where coffee began before being spread across all parts of the world. But there is strong evidence to suggest that coffee originated in the mountainous region of Abyssinia, or current day Ethiopia, some over 2,000 years ago.

Of the many known species of coffee, there are four common coffee species: Arabica, Liberica, Excelsa and Robusta. But of these common species of coffee, only two are of economic importance, that is, Arabica and Robusta. Arabica is considered the best quality coffee because of its excellent flavour and aroma. Globally, Arabica accounts for roughly 75% of total world production, while Robusta accounts for the remaining 25%.

Coffee is a tropical plant which is also grown in semi-tropical climate. The majority of the coffee cultivated worldwide is concentrated within 10° north and south of the Equator in an area known as the ‘Coffee Belt’ (Figure 2.5).

Coffee requires deep, friable and loamy soil. Heavy clay soil is not conducive because too much water can affect coffee growth. The soil should have a good water-holding capacity and one that is well aerated. The right pH (acidity) is neutral (7.00) to slightly acidic (between 5.5 and 6.0).

In general, coffee needs a relative humidity of 70 to 85% and a temperature of 13°-26°C, as well as an annual rainfall of 1500 to 3000 mm distributed evenly throughout the year.

Arabica can be planted 900-1800 metres above the sea level while Robusta, Liberica and Excelsa can be planted from sea level up to 900 metres above the sea level.

Arabica being tropical in nature, requires that the plant receives 1000-2000 mm of rainfall per year and grown at an ambient temperature of 15°-24°C.

Robusta on the other hand requires slightly more rainfall (2200-3000 mm/year) and can grow up between 4.5-6.5 m in height.

Direct sunlight is harmful to coffee plants; therefore, these are planted under shade of taller trees. Trees serve as wind breaks. In Tanzania, coffee is often intercropped with banana to provide shade and break the winds. In Brazil, leguminous plants are used which not only provide shade but also enrich soil with nitrogen.

Generally, coffee is grown on slopes. The suitability of slopes for coffee is because these are well-drained and also cooler. Water stagnation is very harmful to coffee plants; therefore, hill slopes are suitable for the crop.

As far as coffee production is concerned, there is much work to be done all year around such as field preparation, transplanting, weeding, pruning, harvesting and disease control.

The field on which to plant coffee should be prepared six months in advance. During soil preparation for coffee planting, heavy vegetation and large rocks are removed. Where the land is not too rocky, clearing involves the removal of rocks, debris, and vegetation.

Holes for planting coffee seedlings, which are dug at least three months in advance, should measure at least 0.6×0.6×0.6 m. Coffee is planted in rows 2 m apart with plants 1.5 m apart within the rows.

Coffee seeds are generally planted in large beds in shaded nurseries 2-3 cm deep. The seedlings are watered frequently and shaded from bright sunlight until they have grown enough to be transplanted. Transplanting often takes place during the wet season.

Care for the crop includes fighting against pests and diseases of coffee, controlling weeds, and adding manures and/or fertilizer.

Coffee berry borer and leaffolder are insect pests that attack coffee. Coffee berry borer is controlled by collecting and destroying infested berries before and after harvest and by not keeping ripe and overripe berries on the plant. Also, pruning excess branches to expose trees to sunlight and harvesting early before berries are fully ripe can help control the problem.

Coffee leaf folder can be controlled through spraying with the correct insecticide.

The most destructive disease of coffee is coffee leaf rust. To prevent it, use disease resistant coffee strains. However, you can also spray the plants with copper fungicides at 2 to 3 weeks interval at the start of heavy rains until the berries mature.

Another disease, called die-back, is characterized by the drying of branches and twigs from the tip downwards. To control it, prune off the diseased branches. As a control measure, apply the right kind and amount of fertilizer at proper time.

It is important to control weeds because they compete with the crop for nutrients. Weed the crop as often as the weeds occurs. Weeding can be done manually by digging with a jembe or ox-drawn mouldboard plough. In case of large plantations, chemicals called herbicides (weed killers) can be used to kill the weeds.

Depending on the variety, it will take approximately 3 to 4 years for the newly planted coffee trees to bear fruits. The fruit, called the coffee cherry, turns a bright, deep red when it is ripe and ready to be harvested.

Because coffee is often grown in mountainous areas, widespread use of mechanical harvesters is not possible and the ripe coffee cherries are usually picked by hand. The main exception is Brazil, where the relatively flat landscape and immense size of the coffee fields allow for machinery use.

Coffee has now been mechanically harvested for over 20 years, and while there are a few different brands of machines they are all basically the same design with the same components.

Coffee is harvested by hand in two ways:

1. Strip picking – all the cherries are stripped off the branch at one time, either by machine or by hand.
2. Selective picking – only the ripe cherries are harvested and they are picked by hand.

Pickers check the trees every 8 to 10 days and individually pick only the fully ripe cherries. This method is labour-intensive and more costly. Selective picking is primarily used for the finer Arabica beans.

After coffee is harvested, it undergoes a processing method in which the coffee beans are removed from the raw fruit. The most popular methods of coffee processing are explained below:

Dry process: It is also known as the unwashed or natural process. In this process, the newly harvested coffee cherries are sorted and dried in the sun or in combination with machine drying.

It is important that the cherries are dried to the correct moisture content because overdrying will result in brittle coffee beans that will produce a bad roast. On the other hand, cherries with too much moisture content cannot be easily stored, because they are prone to attack by bacteria and fungi.

Semi dry process: This is a relatively new method of processing that is commonly used in Brazil and Indonesia. This process involves wet grinding in which the skins of the coffee cherries are mechanically removed by a pulping machine. Afterwards, the mucilage may be washed off before the coffee beans are dried. In some cases, the mucilage is not washed off and the coffee beans are allowed to stay for a day before being dried.

Wet process: Generally, the wet process involves washing the pulp of the coffee cherries to expose the coffee beans. The wet process method can be done by any of these two ways:

• Ferment and wash processing: In this process, the pulp is broken down by microbes when the cherries are fermented. The fermentation process breaks down the cellulose in the pulp to release the coffee beans. The cherries are then washed to separate the coffee beans from the pulp.
• Machine assisted wet processing: In this process, the cherries are mechanically scrubbed until they break apart and the coffee beans are released.

After the coffee beans have been separated, they are dried. These beans can be sun-dried by spreading them on drying tables or floors, where they are turned regularly, or they can be machine-dried. Dry beans are processed (milled) in the following manner:

• Hulling: Hulling dry coffee refers to removing the entire dry husk or hull (the exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp) of the dried cherries using a huller.
• Polishing: This is an optional process where any silver skin that remains on the beans after hulling is removed by machine. While polished beans are considered superior to unpolished ones, in reality, there is little difference between the two.
• Grading and sorting: Beans are graded by passing them through a series of screens (sieves). They are also sorted pneumatically by using an air jet to separate heavy from light beans.

Finally, defective beans are removed either by hand or by machinery. In many countries, this process is done both by machine and by hand, ensuring that only the finest quality coffee beans are exported.

Harvested coffee is transported from the plantation or coffee field to the processing factories through roads or railways. The dried beans, known as parchment coffee, are warehoused in jute or sisal bags until they are ready for export or sale. The storage facilities must be well-ventilated to maintain the freshness of the beans. After processing, the milled beans, now referred to as green coffee, are loaded onto ships in jute or sisal sacks, shipping containers, or bulk-shipped inside plastic-lined containers.

SUGARCANE

Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum, is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically 3 to 4 m high and about 5 cm in diameter. All sugarcane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia. The crop was introduced to other parts of the world by European explorers.

Sugarcane is an important commercial crop in Tanzania and it is the main source of sugar produced for both export and domestic consumption. Its production is concentrated mainly in three regions, Morogoro, Kagera and Kilimanjaro.

Conditions for growth of sugarcane include the following:

1. Sugarcane requires a well distributed, total rainfall between 1100 - 1500 mm per annum,abundant in the months of vegetative growth followed by a dry period for ripening. The duration of the rainy season is important in sugarcane growth. For example, at the Kilombero Sugarcane Estates where annual rainfall could be as high as 1500 mm per annum, sugarcane is also irrigated because most of the rainfall is restricted to the period between March and May. On the other hand, if rainfall is insufficient during the season, supplementary irrigation becomes necessary to ensure effective development of stems. In this context, water stress occurring in the plant during stem elongation severely reduces cane production.
2. Sugarcane is mainly a tropical crop. It thrives well in hot climates with temperatures ranging between 21 and 27°C.
3. Sugarcane does not require any specific type of soil as it can be successfully raised on diverse soil types ranging from sandy soils to clay loams and heavy clays. A well drained, deep, loamy soil is considered ideal for sugarcane cultivation.
4. Sugarcane is grown in the world from latitude 36.7° N and 31.0° S, and from sea level to 1000 m of altitude or little more. It is essentially considered as a tropical plant.
5. Sugarcane is a sun-loving plant. It grows well in areas receiving sufficient amounts of sunlight.
6. It requires a flat or undulating land for easy mechanization and adequate drainage.
7. Sugarcane is a labour-intensive crop. Labourers are needed to do the numerous farm operations, ranging from land preparation to transportation of the processed beans.
8. The plantation should be well supplied with all-weather roads for transportation of farm inputs and harvested sugarcane.
9. Establishment of a sugarcane plantation requires a lot of capital to be spent of inputs, labourers, machinery and other farm necessities.

Sugarcane requires deep tillage. Deep tillage includes ploughing using a tractor and harrow or mouldboard plough. If the land virgin, clear the bush and uproot all stumps, followed by ploughing with a tractor. The second ploughing can be done by a mouldboard plough or a disk harrow. The soil is then levelled and manure or fertilizer is added before planting the cane. Fertilization should be done only if the field is unfertile and after undertaking soil nutrient analysis. When field preparation work is over, shallow furrows 1.2 – 1.8 m apart are made across the field. During planting, sugarcane cuttings are placed in these furrows and covered with soil.

Sugarcane is grown from cuttings of mature stalks. Each cutting, called sett, consists of 3-4 nodes. In some cases, the whole stalk is used. The setts are laid horizontally, next to each other, in the furrows and covered with soil. The field is watered well, keeping it moist at all the time until sugarcane sprouts in approximately two to three weeks. Watering is continued on a regular basis so as to keep the soil moist. The bud forms the stem and after it is well established, it forms its own roots at its base. It also forms a cluster of own roots called a stool. The sett then dies off.

After the sugarcane has established itself, a nitrogenous fertilizer is applied to the field, watering it in well. Usually, it is applied one month after the sugarcane has emerged from the ground and another application is done later as it may be deemed necessary. The sugar cane should be ready to harvest in about 10 to 18 months, depending on variety.

Managing weeds is critical for successful sugarcane production since they compete with the crop for space, light, water, and nutrients. Weeds can reduce cane yields by 12 to 72% depending on the weed intensity. Weeding is done 3 to 4 times before harvesting. Weed the crop as early as the weeds begin to emerge from the ground and repeat when the weeds reappear. Some farmers use herbicides (weed killers) to kill the noxious weeds. Integrated weed control program involving crop rotation, manual weeding, proper seedbed preparation, maintenance of optimum plant population, mechanical inter-cultivation and herbicide applications can also be applied.

Sugarcane harvesting is done either manually by using labourers or mechanically by use of machines. In many countries even today harvesting is done manually using various types of knives or axes.

Manual harvesting involves cutting off the stalk of the cane at the base, making sure that the cut is as close to the ground as possible. The immature nodes at the top are trimmed off and the resulting stalks are piled up on the ground ready to be transported by lorries, tractors, trucks or other means of transport to the cane mill. The left over cuttings form a mulch which keeps in moisture, stops the growth of weeds and helps prevent soil erosion. In other areas, the stalks are burnt to remove dry leaves, weeds and other matter which can make harvesting and milling operations difficult.

In mechanical harvesting, the harvester moves along the rows of sugarcane removing the leafy tops of the cane stalks, cutting the stalks off at ground level and chopping the cane into small lengths called 'billets'. These are loaded into a haul-vehicle travelling alongside the harvester. The cane is then taken to a road haulage delivery point for transport to the mill.

After harvesting, the stubble left behind grows new shoots, producing a "ratoon" crop. Two or three ratoon crops can be grown before the land is rested (or planted with an alternative crop such as legumes), ploughed and replanted for the cycle to start again.

In the factory the cane is weighed and then put in large tanks where it is washed to remove soil and other dirty. It is then cut into small pieces which are fed into roller mills to extract the juice. This is known as extraction. The remaining fibre, called bagasse, is dried and carried away for use as a biofuel in the boilers and in the manufacture of pulp and building materials or used as a source of cellulose for manufacturing animal feeds. It may also be used to generate electricity that is used in the factory.

The juice is then cleaned with slaked lime which settles out a lot of the dirt so that it can be sent back to the fields. Once this is done, the juice is thickened up into syrup by boiling off the water using steam in a process called evaporation. Sometimes the syrup is cleaned up again but more often it just goes on to the crystal-making step without any more cleaning.

The resulting syrup is placed into a very large pan for boiling, the last stage. In the pan even more water is boiled off until conditions are right for sugar crystals to grow. Usually some sugar dust is thrown into the syrup to initiate crystal formation. Once the crystals have grown, the resulting mixture of sucrose crystals and mother liquor (massecuite) is spun in centrifuges to separate the two. Centrifugation removes the sugar crystals from the mixture. The resulting sweet by-product after the crystals are separated is called molasses.

The crystals are then given a final dry with hot air to give brown sugar, which has large crystals. This sugar is further refined to produce brown and white sugars. The different grades of sugar are packed in bags ready for dispatch to the market.

After harvesting, the cane is loaded by hand or mechanical loaders into haulage vehicles. Cane is transported to the mills using trailers, trucks, or trains. When the cane is cut, rapid deterioration of the cane begins. Therefore, unlike sugar beets, sugarcane cannot be stored for later processing without excessive deterioration of the sucrose content.

The sugar can be stored in warehouses while awaiting transport to the market. It can be transported using lorries, ships, trucks, trains, or aeroplanes.

WHEAT

Wheat is one of the world's most important food crops. It is believed that wild relatives of wheat first grew in the Middle East. There are many species of wheat which together make up the genus Triticum. The most widely grown is common wheat (Triticum aestivum).

Wheat is Tanzania's fourth most important crop after maize, cassava and rice. Over 90% of wheat produced in Tanzania comes from the northern highlands (Arusha, Kilimanjaro, and Manyara regions) and the southern highlands (Iringa, Mbeya regions). Production in the southern highlands is predominantly small-scale and in the northern highlands it large-scale.

Wheat can be grown in a wide range of climatic conditions. However, cold, dry and clear weather is ideal for its growth and better yield of the crop. The average annual rainfall for wheat cultivation is about 800 to 1600 mm. The best temperature range for crop growth is about 7°C to 22°C.

Low temperatures, frost, hot and humid climatic conditions are harmful to the crop and they can drastically reduce the crop yield. In early growth stage, it requires a cool temperature of about 15°C. Wheat also needs a lot of sunshine, especially when the grains are filling. The harvest period should also be sunny and dry. Rainfall seasonality is therefore important. Hot and humid climatic conditions encourage diseases such as rust and root rot.

Wheat crop can grow in many soil types. Well-drained, fertile clay loamy soils having moderate water holding capacity are ideal for irrigated wheat cultivation. Black soils are also very well suited for wheat cultivation.

Wheat is grown in plain as well as in rolling topography, which provides adequate drainage and the use of machinery.

In wheat cultivation maximum use of technology is possible. The commercial wheat farming is technology-intensive cultivation which requires tractors, harvesters, threshers, elevators, etc.

Wheat farming is also linked up with export. Therefore, a good transport network is essential for its successful cultivation. It is a capital-intensive farming; therefore, sufficient capital is required.

The land is prepared by clearing the bush and removing stumps, stones and rocks. Then it is ploughed with a tractor or mouldboard plough. It is recommended to plough during the dry season to ensure as many weeds as possible are killed. This is followed by harrowing and levelling the soil. After the last harrow, manure and phosphate fertilizer are applied to the soil. Phosphorous is important as it enhances tillering and hence increase in the crop yield.

Propagation of wheat crop is done by seeds. Seed rate depends on variety (cultivar), cultivation method (rain-fed or irrigated) and sowing method. In large-scale plantations, wheat can be sown in the field through drilling or broadcasting methods. Usually seed drills are attached to tractors to ensure uniform seed sowing. The space requirement in wheat cultivation depends on variety and the sowing method. The ideal row spacing is 15-22.5 cm.

Optimum planting depth varies with planting moisture, soil type, seasonal conditions, and climatic conditions. The general rule is plant as shallow as possible provided the seed is placed in the moisture zone but deep enough so that the soil will not dry to reach the seedling roots before leaf emergence. Optimum planting depth for wheat is around 5-7 cm. Avoid deep sowing in wet soils.

Weed control is essential if wheat is to produce to it full potential, and to prevent weed seeds from contaminating wheat at harvest. Weeding can be done mechanically by uprooting the weeds or by use of herbicides (weed killers). For best results, spray herbicides while weeds are small and actively growing.

During the dry season, watering of the crop is inevitable. Wheat responds well to irrigation. Timely irrigation and avoiding water stress in crucial stages of wheat cultivation is important. Frequency of irrigation depends on soil type, climatic conditions and crop age (stage). Critical periods for water are at tillering and flowering.

Wheat can be harvested when the wheat grains become hard, and when the leaves and straws become hard, brittle and turn golden brown in colour. In small-scale farms harvesting can be done by cutting the straws close to the ground level by sickle. After harvesting the crop, it should be dried for 4 to 5 days on the threshing floor and then threshed by a power-driven thresher.

In large-scale farms modern combine harvesters are used to harvest wheat. The harvester cuts, threshes, winnows and blows the grain onto a truck or tractor-pulled trailer moving alongside the harvester (Figure 2.9).

Wheat is processed into wheat flour which is used to make various food products including bread, beer, biscuits, cake, chapati, and bun, among others. In the milling factory, the grains of wheat are sieved to remove chaffs, weeds, and any other unwanted material. The grains are then crushed in rollers to make different types of flours depending on the end-use of the flour.

Wholemeal flour, as its name suggests, is flour made from the whole grain of the wheat, from which nothing is extracted and to which nothing is added. It contains all parts of the wheat grain including the outer layers of bran, germ and endosperm. White flour, on the other hand, contains only the inner portion of the grain called the endosperm. Brown flour is usually roller-milled, bleached flour to which caramel (burnt sugar, used for colouring and flavouring food) and sometimes some bran has been added.

Wheat is transported from the farm mainly by lorries, trucks, or trains to be stored. After cleaning, it is packed in bags and stored in silos or warehouses. Large scale farmers have all these storage facilities on their farms.

After wheat has been milled, the flour is packed into bags of different sizes and stored in warehouses, awaiting transportation to consumers and baking industries. Finished flour is transported from warehouses to the market by use of lorries, trucks, trains, among other means.

MAIZE

Maize (Zea mays) is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. It is both a large-scale and small-scale crop. In developed countries maize is used for feeding livestock while in developing countries it is consumed directly and serves as staple food.

Maize is one of the most widely cultivated crops and grown in both tropical and warm temperate latitudes. Maize is grown in temperatures between 18°C and 37°C during the day and around 14°C during the night. But the most important factor is the 140 frost-free days. The crop is very susceptible to frost; therefore, its cultivation in temperate latitudes is limited. The ripening and harvesting periods should be sunny and dry.

Maize requires at least 500 to 1000 mm of rainfall. It is grown mostly in regions having annual rainfall between 600 mm to 1100 mm. But it is also grown in areas having rainfall of about 400 mm. In East Africa, maize can be grown in areas receiving between 300 and 1800 mm of annual rainfall. The crop can also be grown successfully under irrigation.

Maize can grow on a wide range of soils though it performs best in well drained and well aerated loam or silty loams or alluvial soils with a pH of 5.5 to 7.0. It is intolerant of water logging.

A fairly flat land is most suitable for maize cultivation, because this enables the use of machines. However, maize is also cultivated on undulating lands as well as on lower slopes of the hills. Little maize is grown in altitudes above 2000 m, as only long-term varieties can survive in such high altitudes.

Where maize is grown on large scale farms, machinery such as tractors, ploughs and harrows are mainly used to prepare the land for planting the crop. It is recommended to clear land, and then do the first and second ploughing. Then a harrow is used to cut the soil into small lumps and to remove the weeds before planting. On small-scale farms, the land can be prepared by using ox-drawn mouldboard ploughs, and even hand hoes. Ploughing should go a depth of at least 20 cm and should be conducted two to three weeks before the onset of the rains.

The first step towards obtaining good maize harvest is ensuring that the farm is well-ploughed and ready for planting. After preparing the land, the farmer should then plan for the planting process by budgeting for and acquiring inputs such as fertiliser and seeds.

Planting is done at the beginning of the rainy season and it should be done when the soil is slightly wet. On large scale farms, holes are dug by tractor-pulled planters which drop maize in each hole as the tractor moves along (Figure 2.11). The machine then covers the holes with a light layer of soil. The space between holes may vary between 23 cm and 30 cm. The rows may be between 60 cm and 90 cm apart.

At planting a phosphate fertilizer such as DAP (Diammonium Phosphate) is applied to the soil. Apply the fertilizer at a rate of about one teaspoon per hole. When the maize is at knee high which, about 3-4 weeks after planting, nitrate fertilizers are applied as top dressing. It is applied around the plant and one should repeat application at later stage when the maize is about 8-10 weeks for best results. Urea may burn the plant if it touches the plant and therefore it should be applied at least 5-6 cm around the plant and not placed too far as it will not benefit the plant.

Weed control is vital in maize farming because they compete with the crop for water, nutrients, space and sunlight. Weeds may be controlled by hand weeding or using herbicides (chemicals that kill the weeds while leaving the crop unharmed). If a hand hoe is used, maize farmers are advised to weed at least twice with the first weeding being done at around 3 weeks after planting and the second weeding at 8 weeks after planting.

If the maize is planted in an area where it is likely to be attacked by insects or diseases, the correct pesticides or chemicals used to kill the pests and treat diseases. The crop can also be irrigated if it is grown in areas receiving insufficient rainfall.

The right age to harvest maize is when the stalks have dried and the moisture of grains is about 20-17%. It is advisable to harvest maize as soon as it is dry. If it overstays in field it will be attacked by weevils or termites. On small-scale farms, the maize cobs are harvested manually by hands. On large-scale farms, farmers may use maize harvesters.

Maize processing involves shelling (removal of grains from the cob). This can be done by using hands, beating with sticks, or using simple machines called maize shellers. A sheller can be manual or motor-driven. After shelling, the grains are winnowed to remove any thresh, cob remains or any dirt.

The principal objective in any maize grain storage system is to maintain the stored grains in good condition so as to avoid deterioration both in quantity and quality. During storage, the grain must remain dry and clean.

On small-scale farms maize cobs are packed in sacks and then transported to homes by using carts, tractor-pulled trailer or other means. The cobs are then laid on the ground to dry perfectly before storing in granaries. Some farmers fill maize grains in sacks and store them in their houses to await sale. In large-scale farms, the dry, shelled grains are packed in sacks and stored in silos. The grain is transported to the market by using various means of transport.

Major Producing Countries for Respective Crops in the World

Identify and locate major producing countries for respective crops in the world

Tea

Top tea producing countries are China, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Japan, Argentina, Thailand, Bangladesh, Malawi, Uganda, Iran, Tanzania, Myanmar, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, Mozambique, and Nepal. China, India, Kenya and Sri Lanka together represent 75% of world production.

Cotton

Being the most sought after raw material in the world, there is a huge competition between the countries for the commercial production of cotton. Major world producers of cotton are China, India, USA, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan, Turkey, Australia, Turkmenistan, Mexico, Argentina, and Greece.

Sisal

Top sisal producing countries in the world are Brazil, Tanzania, Kenya, Madagascar, China, Mexico, Haiti, Venezuela, Morocco and South Africa.

Sugarcane

World’s top 10 producers of sugarcane are Brazil, India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, Mexico, Colombia, Indonesia, Philippines, and USA. Others are Australia, Indonesia, Cuba, South Africa, Argentina, Myanmar, and Bangladesh.

Maize

Maize is a cereal crop which is cultivated widely throughout the world. The United States produces 40% of the world’s harvest. Other top producing countries include China, Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia, India, France and Argentina, South Africa, and Ukraine.

Wheat

The following are the top ten wheat-producing countries: China, India, USA, France, Russia, Australia, Canada, Pakistan, Germany, and Turkey. In east Africa, Kenya is the leading wheat producer, followed by Tanzania.

Coffee

The world's top 16 largest coffee producing countries as of 2017 are Brazil, Vietnam , Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, India, Honduras, Uganda, Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, Nicaragua, Cote d'Ivoire ,Costa Rica, Kenya, and Tanzania.

Contribution of Produced Crops to the Economy of USA and Tanzania

Describe contribution of produced crops to the economy of USA and Tanzania

USA, like Tanzania, relies on different cash crops for economic growth. The following are contributions of cash crop farming to the economy of USA and Tanzania:

1. Foreign currency earnings: Cash crops contribute to earnings of foreign currencies through exports of various crops. Agriculture is a major industry in the United States, which is a net exporter of food. The country’s cash crop exports include maize, soybeans, wheat, cotton, tobacco, rice, sorghum, and barley, among others. Tanzania's agriculture sector is extremely diverse. Crop production accounts for 55% of agricultural GDP, livestock for 30%, and natural resources for 15%.1. The main export crops are sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, and tea. Exports of the named crops earn both countries the much needed foreign currency.
2. Industrial growth: Cash crops have contributed to the growth of various industries because crops are used as raw materials in manufacturing and processing industries. For example, cotton produced in both countries is used for making clothes and other materials. Also tea, coffee, and sisal feed the respective processing industries found in these countries. Therefore, cash crop production has led to establishment and growth of processing and manufacturing industries in both USA and Tanzania.
3. Growth of livestock sector: In USA about 33% of the maize produced is used to feed livestock while only 11% is exported. This has contributed, a great deal, to the growth of livestock farming in the country.
4. Source of household income and employment: Cash crop farming is a source of income for farmers. It also provides employment to different people engaged directly and indirectly in agricultural sector. For example, people are employed in farms to carry out diverse farm operations ranging from farm preparation to processing of agricultural produce. Also people are employed in processing and manufacturing industries and trade in agricultural products. This has helped to curb unemployment problem in both countries.
5. Food security: Cash crop production ensures food security in these countries. This is due to the fact that it leads to the production of food crops in surplus leading to sufficient food in the country. Sufficiency in food supply eliminates the burden of importing food and hence saving foreign currency, which is otherwise directed towards improvement of social services.
6. Improvement of transport and communication facilities: The presence of cash crops has led to improvement of transportation infrastructures (rural access roads, railways, bridges, etc) in areas of production. By comprehending the role played by cash crops to their economies, the two countries have directed their efforts towards improvement of transport infrastructures meant to facilitate the transportation of inputs to farms and produce to the market.
7. Growth of towns and cities: Cash crop production contributes to the growth of towns and cities. For example, Kagera town in Tanzania has grown to the current status partly due to the production of coffee in that part of the country.

Explain Problems Facing Large Scale Agriculture (Tanzania and USA Case Study)

Drawing example from Tanzania and USA explain problems facing large scale agriculture

Explained below are some of the problems that face large scale agriculture in USA and Tanzania:

1. Harsh climatic conditions

Hazardous climatic conditions affect agriculture both in the USA and Tanzania. More extreme temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing. Extreme events, especially floods, droughts, and frost can harm crops and reduce yields.

In Tanzania, the adverse impacts of climate change in agriculture include reduced crop yield due to floods, insufficient rainfall, high temperature, etc. The amount of annual rainfall has been fluctuating from year to year, hence making it hard for farmers to practice sustainable agriculture.

2. Pests, diseases and weeds

Crop pests and disease outbreaks contribute to more yield losses. The losses are twofold: loss due to destruction of crops and hence reduction in yields and loss due to a lot of money spent by farmers on control of pests, disease and weeds. Troublesome crop pests in Tanzania include weaver birds (Quelea quelea), cotton boll worms, rats and a myriad of other crop pests.

Many weeds, pests, and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and increased carbon dioxide levels. Currently, USA farmers spend more money per year to fight weeds, which compete with crops for light, water, and nutrients. The ranges and distribution of weeds and pests are likely to increase with climate change. This could cause new problems for farmers' crops previously unexposed to these species.

3. Loss of soil fertility

Most cash crops in large-scale farms are grown under monoculture and intensive use of machinery. This practice leads to loss of soil nutrients as well as destruction of soil structure. On a long run, the soil is rendered useless for crop cultivation as the costs to replenish its fertility far outweigh returns from the produce.

Besides soil fertility loss, the overuse of agrochemicals (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc) have detrimental effects to soil microorganisms, which play an important role in improvement of soil fertility. The use of machinery in performing different farm operations leads to soil compaction, the end impact of which is poor aeration and difficulty in root penetration.

4. Poor resource management

Poor management of the factors of production is a barrier to successful large-scale agriculture not only in Tanzania but Africa at large. Embezzlement of funds allocated for development of large-scale farms and poor labour management is one of the reasons some plantations have been closed down. The impact of these misconducts is the slow development of large-scale farming and hence a drop in the country’s economy.

5. Poor financial support

There is a big shortage in capital required by farmers to grow, expand and maintain their yields. Most commercial banks are not willing to lend money to farmers because farming has of late become unpredictable business due to increased occurrence of extreme weather, resulting in low yields.

6. Fluctuation in price

A sharp fluctuation in price of agricultural crops in the world market has made farmers reluctant to continue with crop production. For example, in recent years a sharp drop in coffee price in the world market has compelled coffee growers in Tanzania to cut down coffee trees and resort to growing other crops.

7. Expensive inputs

Large-scale agriculture requires a lot of inputs including fertilizers, seeds and machinery. In case of a rise in price of inputs, farmers may not afford them or else they may be forced to take loans which they are unable to repay when crop price drops down.

8. Land encroachment

In large-scale farming, vast stretches of land are used to grow crops. Sometimes landless people invade the farms to acquire the land by force, a fact which leads to disruption of the production processes and destruction of crops. Such incidences may hamper farming activities a great deal.

Livestock refers to domesticated animals, such as cattle, sheep, poultry, donkeys, or horses, raised for home use or for profit, especially on a farm. Livestock keeping refers to the practice of rearing animals and birds.

Livestock Keeping

Livestock refers to domesticated animals, such as cattle, sheep, poultry, donkeys, or horses, raised for home use or for profit, especially on a farm. Livestock keeping refers to the practice of rearing animals and birds.

There are three broad forms of livestock keeping. These are:

How Pastoralism, Sedentary and Commercial Livestock Keeping are Practised

Describe how pastoralism, sedentary and commercial livestock keeping are practiced

Pastoralism

Pastoralism is an economic system or way of life based on the raising and herding of livestock, where the livestock are mainly fed on natural pastures. The species of animals kept under pastoralism vary with the region of the world, but they are all domesticated herbivores that normally live in herds and eat grasses or other available plant foods. Horses are the preferred species by most pastoralists in Mongolia and elsewhere in Central Asia. In East Africa, it is primarily cattle. In the mountainous regions of Southwest Asia, it is mainly sheep and goats.

There are essentially two forms of pastoralism: nomadism and transhumance. Nomadism is the most common form of pastoralism.

(a) Nomadism

Nomadism is a form of pastoralism in which pastoralists keep large numbers of livestock and move from place to place in search of water and pasture for their animals. Pastoralists of this kind are called nomads. Nomadism is common in arid and semi arid areas which are usually underpopulated and have few settlements.

Examples of places where nomadism takes place are West Africa by the Fulani who move from Lake Chad down to the Jos plateau in Northern Nigeria. The pastoral tribes of East Africa include Maasai, Gogo, and Barbaig of Tanzania; Pokot, Samburu, Turkana, Maasai, Boran, Somali, and Rendille of Kenya; and Karamajong of Uganda. In Ethiopia, it is practised by Borana, Guji and Gabra tribes; and in the Sahara desert by the Tuareg.

These nomadic societies do not have permanent settlements, but rather live in tents, cottages or other relatively easily constructed dwellings all the year round. The wealth and prestige of cattle keepers depends on the number of cattle they have, thus they do not sell their animals unless they are exchanged for necessary requirements. Pastoral nomads are usually self-sufficient in terms of food and most other necessities. In most of the areas where nomadism is practised, the rainfall is scarce; hence availability of pasture and water is also seasonal.

Pure nomads have no permanent settlements. They move from place to place seasonally looking for pastures and water. Semi-nomadic societies (agropastoralists) have permanent homes Agropastoralists can be described as settled pastoralists who cultivate sufficient areas to feed their families from their own crop production. Examples of agriculturalists in Tanzania include Sukuma, Nyamwezi, and Kurya.

(b) Transhumance

Transhumance is the action or practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle, typically to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer. In mountainous regions such as Switzerland, Bosnia, North Africa, the Himalayas, Kyrgyzstan and the Andes, this is a vertical movement, usually between established points, and the routes are very ancient.

Transhumant pastoralists usually depend somewhat less on their animals for food than nomads do. They often engage in small-scale vegetable farming at their summer encampments. They also are more likely to trade their animals in town markets for grain and other things that they do not produce themselves.

Pastoralism as form of livestock keeping is gradually declining because of the following reasons:

1. Education: Increase in the level of education and advancement in technology has made farmers find settling more economical than moving from place to place.
2. Decreased pastureland: The increase in population size has reduced the land available for pasture. More land is being used for agriculture, settlement and other social purposes. The fact that pastoralists have also begun to engage in other economic activities such as fishing, cultivation, lumbering, and trade has forced them to settle.
3. Government policy: The government has discouraged pastoralism by advising farmers to reduce the number of animals and keep improved breeds for the sake of both increasing the productivity and conserving the environment.
4. Political boundaries and control of livestock movement: Governments of different countries are restricting movement of animals across borders, thereby limiting the movement of pastoralists.

Sedentary livestock keeping

This involves the keeping of animals in a permanent place, such as in a farm. Livestock keeping systems are called sedentary when humans and the livestock are permanently resident in a defined area, in a permanent camp or in a limited area as a farm or a ranch.

Generally, animals stay each night in park or in a barn. Pastures are mainly natural grasslands and rangelands but often include the cultivation fields after harvest and fallows. The cattle may be kept for meat (beef cattle) or milk production (dairy cattle). Other animals such as pigs, poultry, rabbits, and donkeys are kept under sedentary livestock keeping.

Framers practising this form of livestock keeping may plant pastures (grasses, legumes or multipurpose trees) to feed their animals. In some cases, the grazing land may be fenced into several paddocks and the animals paddocked rotationally. Animals are often kept on a small piece of land. Disease and pest control is practised routinely and when need be. The farmers construct animal structures such as cattle dips, crushes, milking parlours, and feeding troughs.

Several factors have contributed towards the development of sedentary livestock keeping. The factors include the following:

1. Shortage of land for grazing animals due to high population.
2. Efforts by the government and environmentalists to encourage pastoralists to settle.
3. The desire of the pastoralists to improve their livelihood through practising sustainable animal husbandry.
4. Education given to pastoralists on how to improve their livestock through better husbandry methods.
5. Engaging in other economic activities rather than animal keeping has compelled the pastoralists to have permanent settlements.

Commercial livestock keeping

Commercial livestock keeping refers to the rearing of animals for products such as milk, meat, eggs, wool, or mohair for sale.

This type of livestock keeping can be done on a small-scale (intensive) or large-scale (extensive). When done on small-scale basis, only a few animals are reared on a small piece of land. Most of the farm operations are done through manual labour and there is limited use of advanced technology such as use of artificial insemination and processed animal feeds. On large scale farming, two methods are commonly used: ranching and dairy farming.

(a) Ranching

Ranching is the practice of raising herds of animals on large tracts of land. Ranchers commonly raise grazing animals such as cattle and sheep. The ranching and livestock industry is growing faster than any other agricultural sector in the world. It is practised mainly on marginal, arid and semi-arid lands where the amount of rainfall is not sufficient to grow crops without irrigation.

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